Long-Term Memory Encoding and Retrieval in Cognitive Psychology — Chapter 6 Summary from Cognitive Psychology

How do we remember birthdays, facts, or even how to ride a bike? Chapter 6 of Cognitive Psychology explores the structure and function of long-term memory (LTM), a virtually limitless cognitive system that stores knowledge, experiences, and skills across time. In this summary from Last Minute Lecture, we break down the encoding, storage, and retrieval processes that underlie memory — along with distinctions between types of memory and theories that explain why we remember some things better than others.

Watch the video above or continue reading to dive into essential concepts like episodic vs. semantic memory, recognition vs. recall, and why survival-related information is easier to remember.

What Is Long-Term Memory?

Long-term memory (LTM) refers to the cognitive system responsible for the long-term storage of information — potentially lasting from minutes to a lifetime. It supports learning, decision-making, identity, and functioning across all domains of life.

Types of Long-Term Memory

LTM is typically divided into two main types:

• Declarative (Explicit) Memory – Conscious memory of facts and events.
• Episodic Memory – Memory tied to specific experiences or times (e.g., your last birthday).
• Semantic Memory – General knowledge or facts not linked to specific experiences (e.g., knowing the capital of France).
• Procedural (Implicit) Memory – Memory for motor skills and habits (e.g., tying shoes, typing).

Encoding and Storage

Encoding is the process of transforming sensory input into a memory trace. Storage refers to how encoded memories are maintained over time. The levels of processing theory posits that the depth at which information is processed influences its memorability — deeper, semantic encoding leads to stronger memory formation.

Other encoding strategies include:

• Self-Reference Effect – Linking new information to oneself enhances memory.
• Survival Processing – Processing information through the lens of survival relevance improves retention.
• Enactment Effect – Physically performing an action during encoding enhances memory.

Retrieval Processes

Retrieval is the process of accessing stored memories. Success in retrieval depends on:

• Retrieval Cues – Stimuli that trigger memory recall.
• Encoding Specificity Principle – Memory is most effectively retrieved when the retrieval context matches the encoding context.

Common retrieval methods include:

• Free Recall – Recalling information without cues.
• Recognition – Identifying previously learned information from options (e.g., multiple-choice tests).
• Cued Recall – Retrieving information with the help of prompts or cues.

Forgetting and Interference

Memory is not infallible. Two primary causes of forgetting are:

• Proactive Interference – Older memories interfere with the encoding of new information.
• Retroactive Interference – New learning disrupts the retrieval of previously stored information.

Prospective Memory

Another key topic in this chapter is prospective memory, or remembering to carry out intentions in the future (e.g., remembering to attend a meeting). It’s essential for goal-directed behavior and requires both retrieval and executive control.

Glossary of Key Terms

• Long-Term Memory (LTM) – Enduring memory system for knowledge and experiences.
• Encoding – Converting sensory input into memory.
• Storage – Retaining information over time.
• Retrieval – Accessing stored information.
• Declarative Memory – Conscious memory for facts and events.
• Episodic Memory – Personal, time-based memory.
• Semantic Memory – Factual and conceptual knowledge.
• Procedural Memory – Implicit memory for motor skills.
• Encoding Specificity Principle – Retrieval depends on matching encoding context.
• Levels of Processing – Deeper processing enhances retention.
• Self-Reference Effect – Relating material to oneself boosts memory.
• Survival Processing – Encoding with survival relevance enhances memory.
• Retrieval Cues – Stimuli that aid memory access.
• Recognition vs. Recall – Different forms of retrieval: identifying vs. generating.
• Proactive Interference – Older memories block new information.
• Retroactive Interference – New learning disrupts old memory retrieval.
• Prospective Memory – Remembering future tasks or actions.
• Enactment Effect – Physical action boosts memory encoding.

Why This Chapter Matters

Understanding long-term memory helps explain how we learn, retain, and forget information — making it essential for students, educators, and anyone seeking to improve their memory strategies. Chapter 6 from Cognitive Psychology offers foundational theories and real-world applications that reveal the mechanics of memory and its role in everyday cognition.

Watch the full chapter summary on YouTube for a visual and auditory breakdown of memory processes, types, and models. For continued academic support, subscribe to Last Minute Lecture for weekly summaries and study tools based on major psychology textbooks.

Whether you're preparing for an exam, studying memory research, or simply trying to improve your own recall, this chapter gives you the cognitive tools to better understand how long-term memory truly works.

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