The Descriptive Research Strategy — Observation, Surveys, and Case Studies Explained | Chapter 13 of Research Methods for the Behavioral Sciences

Chapter 13 of Research Methods for the Behavioral Sciences presents the descriptive research strategy, which seeks to describe variables as they naturally occur, without manipulation or control of conditions. Descriptive studies are not designed to establish cause-and-effect relationships, but they provide valuable insights into real-world behaviors, opinions, and individual experiences. This chapter highlights three major descriptive approaches: observational research, survey research, and case studies.

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Observational Research

Observation allows researchers to record behavior as it naturally occurs. Three primary types are discussed:

• Naturalistic observation: Observing in real-world settings without interference, maximizing ecological validity.
• Participant observation: The researcher actively engages in the situation while observing behaviors.
• Contrived observation: Structured settings designed to elicit specific behaviors for study.

Quantifying Observations

Observational data must be coded and measured systematically. Methods include:

• Frequency method: Counting how often a behavior occurs.
• Duration method: Recording how long a behavior lasts.
• Interval method: Dividing observation periods into intervals and noting presence or absence of behavior.

Sampling Techniques

To capture accurate data, researchers use:

• Time sampling: Observing at specific time intervals.
• Event sampling: Recording specific types of events whenever they occur.
• Individual sampling: Focusing on one participant at a time.

Additional methods like content analysis and archival research extend observation into recorded documents, media, and historical data.

Survey Research

Surveys provide a direct way to gather self-reported data on thoughts, attitudes, and behaviors. Key elements include:

• Question formats: Open-ended, restricted-choice, and rating-scale (e.g., Likert scale) questions.
• Administration methods: Surveys can be distributed by mail, phone, Internet, or in-person interviews.
• Potential problems: Nonresponse bias, poorly worded questions, and interviewer bias can compromise results.

Proper survey design emphasizes clarity, neutrality, and strategies to increase response rates.

Case Study Research

The case study provides an in-depth examination of a single individual or a small group. Case studies are particularly valuable for:

• Investigating rare phenomena or clinical conditions.
• Developing new hypotheses for further research.
• Exploring unique treatments or interventions in applied psychology.

However, because case studies lack generalizability and control, they are best used to complement other methods.

Strengths and Weaknesses of Descriptive Research

Descriptive designs offer high external validity because they capture real-world behaviors and experiences. At the same time, their lack of manipulation and control reduces internal validity, making it impossible to infer causation. Researchers must carefully weigh these strengths and limitations when selecting descriptive strategies.

Conclusion

Chapter 13 emphasizes that descriptive research strategies are essential for capturing natural behaviors, gathering self-reported attitudes, and studying unique cases. By combining observational, survey, and case study methods, researchers can generate rich, detailed data that informs theory development and guides future experimental studies.

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