Last Minute Lecture

Infant Growth and Brain Development — Summary of Chapter 5 from The Developing Person Through the Life Span The first two years of life represent one of the most critical periods in human development. Chapter 5 of Kathleen Stassen Berger’s The Developing Person Through the Life Span focuses on biosocial development during infancy, including physical growth, brain development, sensory maturation, motor skills, and essential survival factors. This summary offers a comprehensive overview of how infants grow, adapt, and thrive in their earliest months. Watch the video above for a podcast-style walkthrough of all key concepts covered in this chapter, or continue reading below for a detailed and structured study guide. Body Growth and Physical Changes Rapid Growth in the First Year Infants typically triple their birth weight and grow nearly 12 inches within their first year. Head circumference expands significantly, reflecting intense brain development. Growth charts use perce...

Stages of Prenatal Development and Birth — Summary of Chapter 4 from The Developing Person Through the Life Span Human development begins before birth, and the prenatal stage lays the foundation for all future growth. Chapter 4 of Kathleen Stassen Berger’s The Developing Person Through the Life Span offers a detailed overview of prenatal development, the birth process, and the challenges faced by both newborns and parents. This chapter highlights the incredible complexity of early development while addressing common risks and adaptations during and after birth. Watch the full video above for a concise, podcast-style walkthrough of the entire chapter, or continue reading for a structured breakdown of key topics in prenatal and newborn development. The Three Stages of Prenatal Development 1. Germinal Period (First 2 Weeks) This stage begins with the formation of a zygote through the union of sperm and egg. Rapid cell division and cell differentiation begin immediately, b...

How Genes and Environment Shape Development — Summary of Chapter 3 from The Developing Person Through the Life Span How much of who we are is determined by our DNA? How do external factors like nutrition or culture interact with genetics? Chapter 3 of Kathleen Stassen Berger’s The Developing Person Through the Life Span explores the fascinating relationship between genes, environment, and human development. This chapter provides essential insights into how genetic blueprints and life experiences collaborate to shape individual traits, behaviors, and health outcomes. Watch the full summary above or read below for a detailed breakdown of key concepts, from DNA to epigenetics to ethical debates around gene editing. The Blueprint: Genes and DNA At the foundation of human development are genes —segments of DNA located on chromosomes . Humans have 46 chromosomes arranged in 23 pairs. Each gene may exist in different forms, known as alleles , which lead to variations in traits s...

Major Theories of Human Development — Summary of Chapter 2 from The Developing Person Through the Life Span How do we explain human growth, personality, and behavior across the lifespan? Chapter 2 of Kathleen Stassen Berger’s The Developing Person Through the Life Span introduces students to the most influential developmental theories in psychology. This chapter breaks down how leading thinkers like Freud, Erikson, Piaget, Vygotsky, and Skinner interpreted the complex journey of human development. Watch the video above for an audio summary of each theory, or read below for a structured guide to the foundational ideas shaping developmental psychology. Psychodynamic Theory: Freud and Erikson Sigmund Freud proposed that development occurs through a series of psychosexual stages , where unconscious desires and conflicts shape personality. Each stage focuses on different erogenous zones and unresolved conflicts that influence adult behavior. Erik Erikson extended Freud’s ide...

What Is Human Development? A Summary of Chapter 1 from The Developing Person Through the Life Span Human development is a lifelong journey influenced by biology, environment, and culture. Chapter 1 of Kathleen Stassen Berger’s textbook, The Developing Person Through the Life Span , lays the foundation for understanding this complex field of psychology. Whether you're prepping for an exam or looking to grasp the basics of developmental psychology, this summary offers a clear and accessible overview. Watch the full podcast-style breakdown above or read on for a comprehensive review of key concepts and terminology that form the backbone of human development studies. Defining Human Development Human development refers to the scientific study of how and why people grow, change, or remain the same over time. This discipline seeks to understand physical, cognitive, emotional, and social transformations across the entire lifespan. The goal is not only to observe these patterns ...

Judgment, Heuristics, and Decision-Making in Cognitive Psychology — Chapter 11 Summary from Cognitive Psychology Why do people make irrational choices, stick with bad investments, or trust gut feelings over facts? Chapter 11 of Cognitive Psychology explores the psychological mechanisms behind judgment and decision-making . In this chapter summary from Last Minute Lecture , we examine how people make choices, the role of mental shortcuts (heuristics), and how biases like overconfidence or framing effects shape decisions under uncertainty. Watch the video above or read on to discover why our minds often take cognitive shortcuts—and how this impacts everything from daily choices to major life decisions. Judgment vs. Decision-Making Judgment involves estimating or predicting outcomes based on incomplete information. Decision-making goes one step further by choosing between alternatives based on judgments. Both are influenced by probability, value, emotion, and context. Norm...

Memory Distortion and Malleability in Cognitive Psychology — Chapter 8 Summary from Cognitive Psychology Memory is not a perfect recording device—it’s a dynamic, reconstructive system prone to error and distortion. Chapter 8 of Cognitive Psychology explores the malleability of memory , showing how our recollections are shaped by suggestion, emotion, post-event information, and social influence. In this chapter summary from Last Minute Lecture , we dive into the science of false memories, eyewitness errors, and the unsettling realization that our minds often fabricate what we think we remember. Watch the full video above or continue reading to explore how memory works—and how it sometimes fails us—in both everyday situations and high-stakes environments like the courtroom. Memory Is Reconstructive, Not Reproductive Contrary to popular belief, memory is not a literal playback of past events. It is constructive in nature—recreated from stored fragments each time we recall. Th...

Autobiographical Memory and Life Recall in Cognitive Psychology — Chapter 7 Summary from Cognitive Psychology How do we remember who we are, where we've been, and what we've lived through? Chapter 7 of Cognitive Psychology explores the deeply personal domain of autobiographical memory — the memory system responsible for storing and retrieving the events of our lives. In this chapter summary from Last Minute Lecture , we unpack the cognitive and emotional mechanisms that shape how we remember past experiences, how those memories support our identity, and how they influence our future behavior. Watch the full summary above or continue reading to learn how autobiographical memories form, why some events are remembered more clearly than others, and how culture, emotion, and purpose all shape our personal narratives. What Is Autobiographical Memory? Autobiographical memory (AM) is the memory system dedicated to recalling life events and personal experiences. It blends ...

Long-Term Memory Encoding and Retrieval in Cognitive Psychology — Chapter 6 Summary from Cognitive Psychology How do we remember birthdays, facts, or even how to ride a bike? Chapter 6 of Cognitive Psychology explores the structure and function of long-term memory (LTM), a virtually limitless cognitive system that stores knowledge, experiences, and skills across time. In this summary from Last Minute Lecture , we break down the encoding, storage, and retrieval processes that underlie memory — along with distinctions between types of memory and theories that explain why we remember some things better than others. Watch the video above or continue reading to dive into essential concepts like episodic vs. semantic memory, recognition vs. recall, and why survival-related information is easier to remember. What Is Long-Term Memory? Long-term memory (LTM) refers to the cognitive system responsible for the long-term storage of information — potentially lasting from minutes to a ...

Object and Concept Recognition in Cognitive Psychology — Chapter 5 Summary from Cognitive Psychology Recognizing a friend’s face, identifying a coffee mug, or naming a smell — all of these rely on complex cognitive mechanisms of object and concept recognition. Chapter 5 of Cognitive Psychology dives into how we perceive, classify, and mentally organize the objects and concepts that make up our environment. In this chapter summary from Last Minute Lecture , we explore theories of visual recognition, the role of top-down and bottom-up processing, and the specialized processes behind recognizing faces and categorizing concepts. Watch the video above or continue reading to understand how your brain turns patterns and sensory input into meaningful, recognizable information about the world around you. Object Recognition: The Basics Object recognition involves identifying and classifying objects based on stored mental representations. It draws from both bottom-up processing (dri...

Immediate Memory and Working Memory Systems — Chapter 4 Summary from Cognitive Psychology How do we hold and manipulate information in real-time? Chapter 4 of Cognitive Psychology introduces the concept of immediate memory , a critical cognitive system that supports reasoning, problem-solving, and comprehension. In this chapter summary from Last Minute Lecture , we explore foundational memory models, executive attention, and the complex mechanisms that allow us to retain and work with information actively within consciousness. Watch the full summary above or continue reading to understand how immediate memory operates, what limits it, and why it matters for learning, focus, and mental control. What Is Immediate Memory? Immediate memory refers to the active processing and manipulation of information currently held in consciousness. Unlike long-term memory, it is transient and capacity-limited. It plays a vital role in decision-making, problem-solving, and language comprehen...

Mechanisms of Attention in Cognitive Psychology — Chapter 3 Summary How do we focus on what matters while filtering out distractions? Chapter 3 of Cognitive Psychology explores the intricate mechanisms of attention , a fundamental cognitive process that enables us to monitor, select, and prioritize information in a world full of competing stimuli. This chapter summary from Last Minute Lecture breaks down theories of attention, its limitations, and its real-world implications in areas like multitasking, driving, and learning. Watch the full summary above or continue reading to explore how cognitive scientists explain attention, including visual and auditory processing, automaticity, and cognitive overload. What Is Attention? Attention refers to the mental process of selectively focusing on specific aspects of the environment while filtering out others. It’s essential for navigating complex environments and prioritizing what we process, learn, and remember. Selective and ...

Perception and Consciousness in Cognitive Psychology — Chapter 2 Summary Our experiences of the world are constructed — not merely received. Chapter 2 of Cognitive Psychology dives into the intricate relationship between perception and consciousness , revealing how sensory input transforms into meaning and awareness. This summary, brought to you by Last Minute Lecture , breaks down the key cognitive processes that shape how we experience reality, from the bottom-up assembly of raw sensory data to the top-down influence of memory, culture, and expectation. Watch the full chapter breakdown above, or read on to learn how perception works both consciously and unconsciously — and how it influences behavior, cognition, and emotion. Understanding Perception: From Sensation to Meaning Perception is the cognitive process of organizing and interpreting sensory input, while sensation refers to the raw physiological intake of information. These two systems interact constantly, filte...

The Origins and Evolution of Cognitive Psychology — Chapter 1 Summary from Cognitive Psychology Cognitive psychology, the scientific study of how we think, perceive, remember, and learn, has a rich and complex history rooted in both philosophical inquiry and scientific experimentation. In this chapter summary from Last Minute Lecture , we trace the foundational developments that shaped the field, including the contributions of early pioneers, the rise of behaviorism, and the transformative impact of the cognitive revolution. This summary is based on Chapter 1 from the textbook Cognitive Psychology . Watch the full chapter breakdown above or continue reading to explore how cognitive psychology developed from early introspective methods to the computational models that dominate the field today. Philosophical and Scientific Roots The origins of cognitive psychology can be traced back to philosophical questions about the mind and knowledge. Thinkers like Plato and Descartes rais...

Understanding Conduct and Disruptive Disorders — Chapter 9 Summary from Mash & Wolfe Chapter 9 of Child Psychopathology by Eric J. Mash, David A. Wolfe, and Katherine Nguyen Williams examines the complex world of childhood and adolescent conduct problems. This includes diagnoses such as Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD) and Conduct Disorder (CD) , both of which are associated with aggressive, defiant, and antisocial behaviors that disrupt family, school, and community life. What Are Conduct Problems? Conduct problems encompass a range of disruptive behaviors that violate social norms and the rights of others. These include: Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD): Characterized by persistent patterns of angry/irritable mood, argumentative behavior, and vindictiveness, typically directed at authority figures. Conduct Disorder (CD): Involves more severe behaviors such as aggression toward people or animals, property destruction, deceitfulness, theft, and serious vio...