The Law of Religion — Animism, Polytheism, Monotheism, and Modern Belief Systems Explained | Chapter 12 from Sapiens by Yuval Noah Harari

How did religion evolve from animist spirits to world-spanning monotheisms and, finally, to modern ideologies like humanism and Communism? In Chapter 12 of Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind, Yuval Noah Harari traces the radical transformation of religion, showing how belief systems have legitimized social orders, unified empires, and adapted to each era’s needs. Watch the full chapter summary video below and subscribe to Last Minute Lecture for in-depth, scholarly guides to every chapter!

The Evolution of Religion: From Spirits to Universal Orders

Harari defines religion as any system of norms and values based on belief in a superhuman order—whether supernatural (like Christianity) or natural (like Buddhism or Communism). Religion has always played a key role in legitimizing fragile social hierarchies, providing “divine” authority to rules and empires that outgrew biology or brute force.

Key Topics in Chapter 12

• Animism to Polytheism: Early societies believed in local spirits; later, gods with limited powers emerged to rule over war, fertility, or weather.
• Monotheism’s Rise and Paradox: Monotheistic religions claimed exclusive truth but often adopted polytheistic practices (e.g., saints in Christianity).
• Natural Law Religions: Systems like Buddhism and Communism, which offer universal moral orders without gods.
• Tolerance vs. Exclusivity: Polytheistic societies were often more tolerant; monotheisms tended to be more exclusive and missionary.
• Modern Syncretism: Today, people blend liberalism, capitalism, nationalism, and religion into hybrid worldviews.
• Humanism as Modern Faith: Ideologies like liberalism, socialism, and even Nazism act as new forms of religion, with dogma, rituals, and “sacred” beliefs about humanity.
• The Future of Belief: Advances in biology and neuroscience now challenge the myth of the autonomous self and soul.

Religion’s Role in Unifying and Legitimizing

Religion—whether supernatural or natural law—has always helped unify people across empires and cultures. Money, empires, and religion are the three great unifiers of humankind, according to Harari, giving shared legitimacy and meaning to otherwise arbitrary social orders.

Conclusion: What Do We Believe Now?

Chapter 12 of Sapiens argues that belief systems have constantly adapted to meet humanity’s social needs. Even today’s secular ideologies are, at their core, religious in structure—offering meaning, ritual, and moral codes. For deeper insights, watch the video above and subscribe to Last Minute Lecture for the complete Sapiens series!

If you found this breakdown helpful, be sure to subscribe to Last Minute Lecture for more chapter-by-chapter textbook summaries and academic study guides.

Want every chapter? Explore the full Sapiens chapter playlist here.